72. Bharat Bhraman 1 - Baradakanta Sengupta

 

    The travels of Bengalis in the past 

                        Sumana Dam

               

   

The author of the book "Bharat Bhraman" (Travels in India), Bardakanta Sengupta, remains largely unknown. Only a few other titles written by him are known: Amar Gaan o Kobita (My Songs and Poems), Sarada (novel), Chander Biye (The Moon’s Marriage) (novel), Haemprabha (novel), and Pratibha (novel). He wrote for magazines like Sanjibani and Sandarbha. There is some ambiguity regarding the travel date in his book because the author mentions that the journey began on the 5th of Shrabana, 1288 Bengal year, i.e., July 19, 1881. However, in the dedication part of the book, he mentions the date as Magh 1284, which corresponds to 1878 CE. Since the dedication section could not have been written before the travel itself, it is assumed that the date in the dedication was printed incorrectly. Therefore, the journey is believed to have started on July 19, 1881.

At the beginning of the book, the author mentions that there are almost no travel accounts in Bengali. The experiences gained from his travels across various places in India over three years are written in this book. To collect details, he relied on the works of a few foreign travelers and popular literature. He also mentions that a second volume of this book would be published, which would include accounts of travels in Malwa, Central India, Bombay, and so on. However, the second volume was either not published or properly preserved. Therefore, this blog is based solely on the first volume.

The author had a thirst for travel since childhood, which intensified with age. Finally, on July 19, 1881, he secretly left his home for a journey across the country, accompanied by a young enthusiast named 'Sh _'. They informed their relatives of their departure through a letter left in a postbox at Howrah Station, before boarding a train. Thus began the real journey of the author.

There are many similarities between the travel destinations and stories of Bardakanta Sengupta and Bholanath Chandra's Travels of a Hindu. If any new subject matter arises, it will only be discussed.

The first travel locations mentioned in the train journey include: Shrirampur, Mahesh, Baidyabati, Chandannagar, Chuchura, Hooghly Imam Badi, Saptagram, Pandua, and Bardhaman. Among the new details provided by the author in this section are: (first) Mohammad Mohsin, sympathizing with his unfortunate sister, established the Imam Badi and arranged scholarships for poor Muslim students, while leading a life akin to that of a hermit with his sister; (second) the account of how they escaped from Bardhaman after being caught at a relative’s house.

After Bardhaman, they proceeded to Kanu Junction Station (Khana Junction), where they boarded a train to Rajmahal. Along the way, they passed through the Three Hills Station, a scenic location where the railway had been cut through the mountains. They then changed trains at this station to reach Rajmahal. There, they had cooked hilsa fish and slept at a shop. From Rajmahal, they traveled by train via Lakshisarai and Mokama to Barighat (Bardaghat, Nepal), planning to travel to Nepal. However, they changed their minds and extended their tickets to Banaras (Varanasi).

The train passed through places like Bankipur, Danapur, Ara, and the Son river bridge, eventually reaching Mughalsarai. From there, they took another train to Rajghat (a ghat in Varanasi), crossed by boat, and explored Varanasi. They visited the Kashi Vishwanath Temple, Annapurna Temple, Gyanvapi, and Beni Madhav's flag. They also saw the Trilanga Swami at the Manikarnika Ghat, where local people shared many miraculous tales about him, though the author didn’t witness them firsthand. They later visited the Man Mandir, Til Bhandeshwar, and Sarnath.

Next, they boarded a train on the Oudh and Rohilkhand Railway to Ayodhya, where they spent a night at a sarai (inn), enduring the discomfort of a cot and bedbugs, though they had a meal of luchi and curry earlier. The author remarked that there was nothing significant left to see in Ayodhya as the temples there appeared modern. Among the temples, Hanuman Garh (also known as Mahabir Garh) was the most important, followed by the birthplace of Lord Ram. The ghats on the Sarayu River, including Ram Ghat, Sita Ghat, and Lakshman Ghat, were also noted.

They then walked for 5-6 miles to reach Faizabad, a city described as clean and founded by a Muslim king, filled with mosques and grand buildings. It also had a British military cantonment. The author also recalled an event when Hastings had wrongfully persecuted and robbed the widow and relatives of the late Nawab Suja-ud-Daula.

At Faizabad, after a long period of craving for proper rice after eating luchis and puris, the author finally had rice made of paddy and potatoes, served on a sal leaf. Despite the rice being half-boiled, he found it immensely satisfying, something he hadn't experienced in his life before.

In the evening, they boarded a train to Lucknow. Upon arrival, the author overcame his hesitation and fear to take shelter at the home of a Bengali Assistant Surgeon. In Lucknow, they visited the Chauk, Kella, and heard stories about the manners and etiquettes of the people there. The Kaisarbagh, once magnificent during the time of Wajid Ali Shah, was now in ruins under British control. The area now housed the Canning College, government offices, and military prisons. The author also visited the Residency and saw the tombs of famous British soldiers, including those who had died during the Sepoy Rebellion. He visited a memorial church, where scenes of the rebellion were depicted on the walls, including one of a sepoy pleading for mercy and another of a British officer raising his sword to strike.

In the southern part of Kanpur, the author visited Yajmou, an area on the banks of the Ganges River, once said to be the residence of King Yajati. The area had ancient mounds, but little to see in terms of significant ruins, although excavation work later uncovered evidence from around 1300-1200 BCE.

North of Kanpur, they visited Bithur, a holy site for Hindus and said to be the hermitage of Valmiki. The author drew a comparison between the exile of Lord Rama’s wife Sita in the Treta Yuga and the exile of Peshwa Baji Rao by the British, which ultimately led to the uprising of the Sepoys.

The author continued his journey by train to Agra, where he stayed with a Bengali family. The European belief that the Taj Mahal was designed by a European draftsman named Austin de Burdiaux was refuted by the author, who noted that the inscription on the Taj Mahal’s entrance mentions the name Amanat Khan Siraji, the actual builder.

The author also visited the Agra Fort and several other places, but the details and historical discussions have been omitted to avoid repetition.

The author visited places such as the Zenana, Moti Masjid, Nagda Masjid, Sheesh Mahal, and others. He then went to visit Itimad-ud-Daula, Ram Bagh, Agra College, and the military cantonment before heading to Sikandra to visit Akbar's tomb. Near the mosque in Sikandra, the tomb of Akbar's Portuguese wife, Mariam-uz-Zamani, is located. Much like in Ayodhya, the author observed the nuisance caused by monkeys in Agra as well.

                           (To be continued)         

71. Expeditions to Tibet 4 - Sarat Chandra Das

 

       The travels of Bengalis in the past 

                        Sumana Dam

               

              (Continued from the last part)

The writer felt as though he was on some rough road in India when he arrived at the Gyanste and Lhasa highways. In some places, it was 20 feet wide, while in others, it was very narrow. The Tibetan government hardly spends on roads; there are no vehicles with wheels throughout Tibet.

After passing through many small and large villages, the writer reached the village of Ring-la and fell seriously ill. In his ill state, he had to ride a horse to Samding Gompa because there was a doctor there. After recovering from the Tibetan doctor's treatment, the writer departed from Samding to Lhasa on horseback on November 27. After traveling some distance, he saw wild goats, wild sheep, and a few musk deer grazing. Hunting wild animals is prohibited in the Yamdo district.

After passing through the town of Nangartse, they reached the shore of Yamdo Lake. At one point, following his companions' advice, the writer had to dismount from his horse, light incense, and pay respect to the spirit. The next day, they walked along the shore of the Palti Lake and reached the base of Khamba-la. The climb to this mountain was relatively easy. Along the road, there were images of Buddha and Bodhisattvas painted on stones at intervals.

From the top of Khamba-la, one could see one of the best views of Tibet. The Sangpo River valley was now before the writer. By midday, they descended to the opposite foothill. Two women working in a barley field asked the writer for money, offering him a bundle of barley. This practice is common throughout Tibet. Then, they saw women making bricks, which were dried and then transported by donkey and mule. They saw the Palchen Chubri Monastery and the suspension bridge over the Sangpo River, which was built in the 15th century.

They crossed the river on a boat with horses. Afterward, the Sangpo River merged with the Lhasa River. Carelessness could result in falling into the river from above or getting stuck in the marshes, leading to a potential death. After a difficult three-mile journey, the writer arrived at the famous Netang village, where Atisha Dipankar had passed away.

On the morning of May 30, the writer set off and passed through several villages before reaching a large sculpture of Buddha’s face carved from the mountain. At that moment, the writer realized that his long-awaited Lhasa was near. Entering through the western gate of the city with a spear in hand, the writer, along with his horse and Furchung, was stopped by the guards. The guards noticed that they were newcomers but did not speak a word. Exhaustion had caused his eyes to swell. With his black glasses and turban, he looked like a Ladakhi. Some people on the road mistook him for a smallpox patient. The guards were checking the belongings of others under the orders of a Lama, but they did not check the writer.

On both sides of the street were Tibetan and Chinese shops. At the front of each shop, there was a pyramid-like container with juniper branches and dry leaves burning to appease the gods. There were also shops selling silk, porcelain, tea, etc., run by Nepali and Kashmiri people. The writer was accommodated at the house where the Lama and officials of the Tashilhunpo Monastery stayed when they were in Lhasa.

On June 1, on the sacred day of Buddha's Nirvana, incense was lit on the mountain top, in monasteries, temples, and every home. In front of the main Buddhist temple, Sang-Khang, there was a long flagpole adorned with the tail hair of a yak, and horns from yaks and sheep. The Buddha statue in the monastery was made of five metals. It was supposedly crafted in Magadha, and besides this, there were statues of Maitreya Buddha, Dipankar Buddha, and twelve of Buddha's chief disciples. There was also a statue of the great reformer Sang-Khapa. The famous stone Amulungka was also visible, which had been used by Buddha's disciple, Moggallana. They also saw the most famous statue, Avalokiteshvara, with eleven faces. There were more statues on the second and third floors of the monastery.

The next day, the writer visited the Ramoche Gompa. From Lhasa, he traveled to Gyantse, where he spent some time at the Tashilhunpo Monastery before starting his journey to India on October 21, 1882. His guide's name was Gopan. Initially, they took the high road to reach Ring-la and then passed through beautiful pasturelands and mountain forests of junipers and cedars, arriving at Talun, a village famous for horse breeding. They then visited the Chong-Khor Monastery and arrived at the Sari village. At the shore of Yamdo Lake, they noticed a large prayer wheel in the village. An old man was tasked with turning the prayer wheel.

The next day, they crossed a small hill called Kabu-la and passed through the villages of Melung, Khamdo, and Ling. In the village of Karmoling, they saw hundreds of horses being ridden. These areas had few human settlements and mostly served as pastures for horses, donkeys, and yaks. They then reached the Tib-la mountain, the border of Yamdo and Lokha districts. The stunning view from the top of the mountain was unlike anything the writer had ever seen. The descent from the mountain was tough, especially with the strong wind. That night, they spent the night in the small village of Tib, listening to sweet songs from the local people.

The next day, they traveled along the path beside the Tib-Chu River, which was surrounded by thick juniper and fir trees. They spent the night in the old fort city of Khedeso, where there were flower gardens in every house.

The next day, they walked for two miles on soft sand and reached the Sangpo River. They crossed the half-mile wide river by boat, with their horses. Afterward, they traveled along the riverbank over hills and rocky terrain, requiring careful movement. They arrived at a large village called Sankar, and the path from there to Samye was sandy.

From the mountain above, the golden spire of the Samye Monastery sparkled in the sunlight. Upon arriving at Samye, the writer inquired about the library, where Atisha Dipankar had once seen many valuable manuscripts. However, he learned that the library had been destroyed long ago, and the books there were all new. The throne of the Dalai Lama was placed in the religious assembly hall.

While touring Samye village, the writer learned that the nearby mountain ranges were home to many wild goats, sheep, deer, and snow leopards. The village was slowly sinking into the sands of the Sangpo River. The writer heard that Guru Padmasambhava had made prophecies about this.

On November 2, the writer set off for Yarlung. Traveling along a sandy road, he passed many small and large villages. He saw the ruins of an ancient royal palace called Tagkar-sho. The ancient Buddhist monastery he saw in one of the villages resembled a house in Bengal. After crossing the river by boat, they reached Se-Tang, the capital of Yarlung, where there were some Nepali, Chinese, and Kashmiri shops.

From there, they toured the Yarlung Valley and saw the ruins of the ancient royal palace at Ne-Dong-Jong. This was the most ancient palace of the seventh century Tibetan kings. The architecture of the Tan-dub Temple was built in the architectural style of Indian influence.

They then visited the most ancient city of Tibet, Fodag Jong. The kings who had established dynasties here were called Chos-Gyal. Yarlung Valley is one of Tibet's most prosperous areas. The people here are gentle and peaceful. Afterward, on November 10, they left Yarlung and began their journey back to Tashilhunpo. They arrived at Tashilhunpo on November 24.

The writer then began preparing to travel to Shakya. With the help of a minister, he obtained his passport. On November 30, he bid farewell to Tashilhunpo and set off with Furchung and Gopan. From there, they traveled over the Khamba-Jong and Kogra Lamo passes to reach Darjeeling.

Traveling along the path of the Ri-Chu River, they stayed for a night at a house in Samdong. The house owner had two husbands, and they were not brothers. They then traveled along the banks of the Shab Chu River.

Shakya, located on the banks of the Tomchu River, was a beautiful city. The temples, libraries, and houses in the city were painted red, with black and blue streaks, giving the city a distinct look compared to other Tibetan cities. The monks here kept long hair, which they braided and wore earrings that covered their ears, extending almost to their shoulders. These earrings were made of gold and embedded with emeralds and turquoise. The library here was vast, with several scriptures written in golden letters. The pages of these scriptures were six feet long and one and a half feet wide, bound with iron. These were created on the orders of Emperor Kublai Khan (1215-1294).

On December 5, 1882, the writer left Shakya and traveled through the Choskhorr Ihunpo Monastery, crossing the Lona village and the Yahug River, climbing Dongla Mountain. From the peak, he saw the majestic Mount Everest (Chomo Kangkar) to the west. The Dongla Mountain is the origin of the Koshi River.

The path then led through a vast, rough valley surrounded by towering peaks. After passing through Map-ya and Donkar, they traveled along the route of the Sang-Chu River towards Shan-Pa-La. The writer noticed many burrowing rodents, disturbing the horse’s footing. Crossing the Shon-Pa mountain, they reached the Chib-Lung Valley. They then crossed the Dopta-Lachen-La pass, from where a view of many parts of Tibet, Nepal, and Sikkim's Himalayas was visible. After passing more villages and valleys, they arrived at Khamba, where they showed their permit to the Lamas. The Lamas approved it, offering the writer rice, sheepskin, and blankets with hopes of meeting again next year.

After bidding farewell to his guide Gopan, the writer rented two new horses and a tent made of yak hair with Furchug and continued his journey. Along the way, they saw many wild sheep and some jackals. They arrived at the Kogra Lamo pass, a beautiful and wild place with no human settlement. Here, they used their yak hair tent to protect themselves from the bitter cold wind. Furchung kept a fire burning all night.

The next day, on December 10, the writer reached Gen-Gang, the border of Tibet, Sikkim, and India. Then, traveling through Sikkim on the usual route for tourists, he returned to Darjeeling on December 27, 1882, after more than a year.

Based on the knowledge and books he collected from Tibet, Sarat Chandra Das wrote several valuable works, including a Tibetan language dictionary.

In 1885, when the administrator Colman Macaulay went to Beijing to seek approval for sending a mission to Tibet, Sarat Chandra Das accompanied him. However, he did not write anything about this journey, so details are unknown.

70. Expeditions to Tibet 3 - Sarat Chandra Das

 

    The travels of Bengalis in the past 

                        Sumana Dam

               

              (Continued from the last part)

During Sarat Chandra Das's first journey to Tibet, he stayed for six months as a guest of the Prime Minister at the Tashi Lhunpo Monastery. During this time, the minister learned much about Western civilization from him and became intrigued by it. At the invitation of the Prime Minister, Sarat Chandra began his second journey to Tibet in 1881. On November 7, 1881, when he departed from Darjeeling for Tibet, his mind was filled with anxiety and uncertainty.

Crossing several rickety bamboo bridges with Lama Ugyen, they reached the deserted village of Gok late at night via a narrow and slippery path. After spreading a blanket on the grass, they spent some time lying down in the rain, and at 4 a.m., they set off again on the difficult journey. By morning, they reached the Rammam Valley. The Rammam River, a tributary of the Rongit River, forms the boundary between British India and independent Sikkim.

Up until this point, no one had seen the writer since leaving Darjeeling. Now, he changed into Tibetan clothes, abandoning his Indian attire. Continuing their arduous trek, they reached the Dhumadiyan Valley (known as Chorten Gang in the Bhutia language). Along the way, they saw many antelopes and wild goats. The local villagers were so poor that they couldn't afford to buy guns to hunt these animals. The Limbu people did not practice farming; they would cultivate a piece of land for three or four years, leave it fallow for three years, and then burn the weeds before replanting. The Limbus had many strange customs. For example, they would play drums for trivial matters. An example of this was when a husband left the village, and upon his return, the wife, along with the children, would play the drum in his honor.

Then came a dense forest of tall pine and magnolia trees, with huge ferns. After seeing wild boar tracks and crossing several small streams, they reached an elevation of 6,000 feet by noon, but were unable to find a resting place due to the thick presence of mosquitoes. They finally descended the mountain and spent the night beneath an oak tree near a bush with religious red cloth-wrapped bamboo branches. As they passed the prosperous village near the homes of Bhutias, Lepchas, and Limbus, they noticed cardamom cultivation. Below them, two bamboo bridges spanned the Kalai or Kalhait River, and the Limbus here used bamboo nets to catch delicious fish. They then ascended the mountain, passing through tall grass forests, where wild boars and porcupines were abundant. From above, places like Pemianshi, Hi, and Yangte could be seen.

Next, they passed through Lingcham, Sangnag Choeling Monastery, Talle Village, and Nambura Village. The writer saw hunters, especially pheasant hunters, who sold stuffed birds in Darjeeling. In Keta village, they stayed amidst dense forests, home to bears, boars, and leopards. Their journey took a more fearful turn when they received news of a man-eating tiger that had killed two Nepali woodcutters in Singalila. Last year, a tiger had killed many people, and everyone feared it might return for more.

Although Yam-Pung-La was not as high as Zongri-La, it was much harder to climb. Then came Du-La (the Demon Mountain), where both Ugyen and a porter fell ill while climbing. Walking through the snow was so difficult that the writer used both hands and feet to continue.

On November 20, the sky was overcast, with a light breeze. The guide, Furchung, was worried about a snowstorm, and he began muttering mantras as he packed up to leave. They started their ascent towards Noga Pass. After climbing a mile, they reached a frozen lake, where the guide spread ice pieces on the lake to mark the path to prevent anyone from slipping. Following this path, the others continued behind him. After a while, the guide, trembling with fear, said that there was no point in continuing; death awaited them in an hour. The writer asked where he saw this death. The guide pointed to the clouds above, moving quickly across the sky, and warned that a heavy snowfall would soon begin. No one would be able to escape. The only way to survive was to turn back to Bogta-La. The guide cried, but returning within an hour seemed impossible. Furthermore, more snow might fall, and they would have to turn back again. After much persuasion, Furchug agreed, and the writer took the lead. After an hour, they reached the pass. The sky had cleared, and the blue sky seemed heavenly, with the sunlight dispelling all fears.

After walking for another hour, they saw the paw prints of a Tibetan leopard on soft snow. The writer marveled at how such an animal could move on such soft snow, and the companions explained that leopards possessed supernatural powers.

After walking for another hour, when the writer became too exhausted to walk, the guide threw his belongings onto the snow, where they slid down a slope and got stuck in the rocks. The writer then lay down and slid down the slope in the same path. In the afternoon, they descended the Chulnkiyok Pass. Afterward, Furchung couldn’t find the path to descend from Semaram Pass due to the deep snow. Eventually, they had to slide down several hundred feet of snow. There, the writer saw the tracks of a rabbit-like bird called Chamdang and the paw prints of a snow leopard.

In Kangpa-Chan village, the guide's home, the writer met his relatives. They then continued on to Manding Gompa, where after many discussions with the lama and the village elders, Furchu secured permission for the writer to enter Tibet. The writer was allowed entry as a pilgrim, recognized for wearing Tibetan clothes, adhering to Tibetan customs, and speaking better Tibetan than most Nepalis. The chief lama bid them farewell, wishing to see them again after a year.

Next, they traveled along the banks of the Yangma River, though the snow-covered river was hard to distinguish. There was no sign of life anywhere. In this icy land, they ascended the Chang-chub-gya-la Glacier. Several times, Furchu carried the writer on his back. They reached a cave to spend the night, but due to the darkness, they couldn’t find the path and almost fell into the cracks in the ice. They survived and spent the night sitting on the rocks, starving, thirsty, and freezing, experiencing an unimaginable terrifying night.

The next day, the guide and porters, chanting mantras, began their journey again, carrying their loads. The day was bright, with the sun's golden light radiating from the Khangla Chan peak. No new snowfall had occurred. On the dangerous path, the guide used a stick to test the ice, creating safe spots for the others to step on. Several times, Furchu had to carry Lama Ugyen on his back.

After about an hour, they reached the highest point of the Khangla Chan. From there, all they could see was a sea of snow. The roar of avalanches could be heard in the distance. The towering white peaks touched the sky, and the writer felt his fear dissipate, replaced by an overwhelming sense of joy. He realized how deeply grateful he was to God for keeping him alive until then.

The next day, following the guide's footprints, they crossed the Darraje-Tag Range's mountains and descended to where rhododendron and juniper trees grew. For the first time in several days, the writer heard the sound of flowing water. Two days later, they enjoyed cooked rice and butter tea with great relief.

After further descending along the river's course, they passed through areas where the Chamris grazed. Occasionally, wolves attacked and fed on them. After another seven days of continuous travel, they finally reached Tashi Lhunpo on December 9. Along the way, they had rented two oxen for a mile-long journey.

The minister's representative invited Sarat Chandra Das with respect, addressing him as a scholar. In April 1882, the writer left Tashi Lhunpo for Dongtse, intending to go to Lhasa. After making all arrangements, he left Dongtse for Lhasa on May 12, 1882. The minister, having blessed him, warned him that the people of Lhasa were not as kind as those in Tashi Lhunpo, advising him to not stay there too long. He also cautioned that smallpox had spread in Lhasa. This time, Ugyen Lama and Furchung were not with him; he traveled with two new companions, Sering Tashi and Pador.

                             (To be continued)

69. Expeditions to Tibet 2 - Sarat Chandra Das

 

      The travels of Bengalis in the past 

                        Sumana Dam

             (Continued from the last part)

The senior Lama of Kambechan Monastery helped the writers. He secretly informed them that they would have to leave the village for Chathang-La before the officials arrived.

The next morning, they began their journey early, traveling about three miles to reach the Kan-Dum-Chu waterfall, which is very sacred. Eight Indian ascetics, known as Ashtavidyadhara Tang-Shru-Gyapa, had bathed here. The waterfall, descending from a height of a thousand feet, is extraordinarily beautiful. On the way, they saw a small pond, which is considered sacred because the Buddhist Guru Pema had bathed there.

That evening, they took shelter in a cave owned by a mountain fox. The guide informed them that there were many musk goats, Himalayan antelopes, and Naos (Ovis ammon) in the area. The place was at an altitude of 18,820 feet. They spent the night after having tea and corn. The next day, on their journey, they saw a type of small rodent without tails, which supposedly feeds on moss growing on snow.

Afterward, there was nothing but snow. As they climbed above 19,000 feet, they began to have severe breathing problems. Despite wearing blue glasses, the glare from the snow made their eyes hurt. Although walking became almost impossible, they had to keep moving because they couldn’t find a place to stay for the night. Finally, around seven in the evening, they found a place to rest, and the guide arranged for them to stay there. The large stones were covered with thick ice, and since the ice would not melt until dawn, there was no fear of stones falling. So, they decided to resume their journey at dawn, spending the night on the snow with just blankets.

The next morning, it felt as if they were starting their journey in a sea of snow. They were knee-deep in snow. The writer's feet became numb, and they could not move. At that point, the guide, Furchung, carried the writer on his back for a distance. After that, the writer was able to continue walking. But then, a vast slope appeared, and if they could reach the other side, they would find a place to rest for the night. The writer kept slipping and falling down. He thought his death was inevitable from sinking into the snow. Furchung came forward again, cutting the ice with his kukri and making steps for the writer to climb. He pulled him up with his hand. Finally, around 6:30 in the evening, they reached a large mountain cave where they could rest comfortably for the night. Comfortably, that is, lying on blankets over the ice and spending the night in wet clothes as water dripped from the cracks in the cave's ceiling.

This was the toughest part of the journey, crossing Chathang-La, which was likely about 20,000 feet high. After six hours of travel the next day, they descended from the pass. They soon reached the border between Nepal, Sikkim, and China. Here, the guide became very afraid because the Dogpas guarded this pass. The writers had entered this restricted pass illegally, so their passports would not be of any use. To avoid punishment, they hid in the cave until evening and crossed the one-mile wide river over stones in the dark.

They then followed a steep mountain path toward the south of Chorten-Nyima-La. In the moonlight, they lay on the barely snow-covered ground, covered in blankets, and fell into a deep sleep. The next day, although the path was not too steep, it was still very difficult. They hadn’t had food for three days and were exhausted from hunger and thirst. After walking eight miles, they reached the foothills of Chorten-Nyima-La.

With Furchung’s help, the writer reached the top of the high pass. Below, the Tibetan plateau was visible. It was now time to descend, and by 3 p.m., they had reached a beautiful lake. The crystal-clear lake reflected the surrounding mountains and the blue sky. The Chorten Nyima River flowed from the lake. Following the river, they began their journey again. After eating corn and sugar, they descended. On the northern side of the Himalayas, there were almost no trees (because Tibet lies in a rain-shadow area).

They were constantly afraid that the guards at the Chorten Nyima Monastery might spot them, so they tried to stay hidden behind large rocks. Sometimes, when they saw a rock, they thought it might be a yak or a horse approaching. They would lie flat on the ground until it passed. After traveling five miles, they arrived at a place with ancient Indian Buddhist stupas. Pilgrims from Tibet, Mongolia, and China came here every year. There were no people in the monastery.

On the next part of the journey, they saw slate stones in black and white-green hues, which they had never seen before. After walking nonstop, they reached the main road near the village of Thek in the deep night. Under the open sky, they laid down their blankets and slept. The next day, they met some tourists on the way. They were traveling in the same direction. The guide introduced the writers as Nepali pilgrims. They took shelter in a house in a village called Tang-Lung, where many villagers came to see them. They begged for alms, and a traveling merchant and his wife came to perform a dance and sing, wishing them well. The next day, they ate mutton for the first time in days and bought some eggs. They then rented horses and continued their journey.

Now, the journey was much more comfortable, along the beautiful Khan-La-Dongki-Chu River. Barley was being cultivated here and there, and yaks, sheep, and goats grazed in the fields. Hundreds of marmots were running around from the numerous holes. When they reached a small village, about twenty villagers gathered to see what they were selling. The writer’s revolver and the Lama’s pistol caught their attention, and they wanted to buy them. The headman seated them on yak wool mats, offering them barley beer and butter tea. That night, they stayed at a wayside shelter in another village.

The next day, they passed some traders and a herd of donkeys and reached the town of Gurme by noon. There were 600 families living there, engaged in livestock farming. In the nearby mountains, the herders lived in leather tents. Furchung went to the village to collect meat and beer, but the dogs and villagers mistook him for a bandit. Eventually, after everyone was cleared, they were allowed to enter the village and collect food. They learned that a band of robbers was in the vicinity, and the writers and the Lama kept their weapons ready.

The following day, while traveling, there was a thunderstorm. Soaked, they took shelter at a shepherd’s camp, where they slept on blankets over cow dung, eating rice and meat. In the evening, a group of 500 shepherds returned. The porters explained that the writers were great lamas and merchants, and the shepherds were glad to know they were not bandits. Several Tibetans joined the group as companions. Everyone felt a little safer with some companions, especially after the fear of bandits. They then descended the Kag-go-La pass.

First, they reached the banks of the Ri River, where sheep were grazing. Two massive Tibetan guard dogs aggressively chased them. When they couldn’t stop them, the Lama shot one dead, and the other ran away. The next day, the writer saw his first Tibetan Buddhist monastery, Ri-Gonpa, also known as Ri Monastery. This ancient monastery housed 300 lamas who practiced Tantra. The head lama was said to know the art of controlling snowfall. Despite the continuous snowfall, they reached the summit of the Kyago-La pass. There, they spent a cold and miserable night, with rain and snow, lying on rocks with blankets.

The next morning, on an empty stomach, they began the steep descent from the pass. By afternoon, they reached a village where they were able to get tea, beer, and barley. The next day, they climbed the summit of Gya-La mountain, and at its end, the writer saw his destination, Tashilhunpo. Below, the beautiful view of central Tibet unfolded. The Penam-Nyang Chu river flowed, and the golden spires of Tashilhunpo Monastery came into view. As they descended, they saw many lamas, merchants, and animals on horseback.

Finally, after 21 days of travel from Zongri, on July 7, 1879, they arrived at Tashilhunpo. Afterward, the writer’s struggle to adapt to the new country and environment, and his time with the chief lama, ministers, and others, will be detailed in the next stage of the journey, without making this travelogue too heavy with details. The first part of his journey ends here. While at Tashilhunpo, he and the Lama Ugyen Sangpo had also traveled around by horse.

The next phase of the Tibet journey, as described in this book, will be taken from another of Sarat Chandra Das's books, Journey to Lhasa and Central Tibet.

                            (To be Continued)

68. Expeditions to Tibet 1 - Sarat Chandra Das

      The travels of Bengalis in the past 

                        Sumana Dam

Sarat Chandra Das (1849-1917) wrote about his travels, particularly in Tibet, in two books: Journey to Lhasa and Central Tibet and Autobiography: Narrative of the Incidents of My Early Life. These two books form the subject matter of this post. Although his travels should be called expeditions rather than mere travel. Both books are written in English. However, as they are travel accounts of a Bengali, they are included in this blog. Journey to Central Tibet was published by John Murray, London, in 1902. Autobiography: Narratives of the Incidents of My Early Life was published in Kolkata in March 1969, though it was first serialized in the Bengali periodical Prabasi.

Sarat Chandra Das was born in 1849 in Chittagong. He began studying Civil Engineering at Presidency College but, due to a malaria illness, he suspended his studies in 1874 and took up a job as the headmaster of the Bhutia Boarding School in Darjeeling to improve his health. In the preface of Journey to Lhasa, American diplomat W.W. Rockhill (the first American to learn Tibetan) mentions that Sarat Chandra became acquainted with Alfred Croft, the Director of Public Instruction of Bengal, while at college. With Croft's help, the Indian government approved his journey to Tibet. However, this is not mentioned in Sarat Chandra’s Autobiography.

In his Autobiography, Sharatchandra describes his first journey to Darjeeling in 1876, his travels to Sikkim in 1876 and 1877, and his visit to Tashihunpo in Tibet in 1877. Journey to Lhasa and Central Tibet details his travels in 1881-1882 to Lhasa and Central Tibet.

When Sharatchandra joined the Bhutia School in Darjeeling, he traveled from Sahabganj to Karagola Ghat by ferry steamer and then continued by ox-cart through Purnia to Siliguri. From Siliguri to Kalabari, he walked along a horse trail, and from Kurseong to Darjeeling, he traveled on horseback, marking his first experience riding.

Upon reaching Darjeeling, Sarat Chandra learned from the Deputy Commissioner of Darjeeling, John Edgar, that the school had been established to teach English to the sons of Sikkim's king and senior officials. A young Lama named Ugyen Gyatso was brought from the Pemayangtse Monastery to assist in this endeavor. Some local Bhutia children were also enrolled in the school. To facilitate his work, Sarat Chandra learned Bhutia and began studying Tibetan, as the Bhutias of Darjeeling spoke Tibetan, and the Sikkimese language was a dialect of Tibetan. His Lama companion also began learning both Tibetan and English. As he learned Tibetan, Sarat Chandra was deeply impressed by the richness and depth of Tibetan literature.

In 1876, Sarat Chandra took the schoolboys on a trip to several Buddhist monasteries, including Pemayangtse in Sikkim. There, he learned from the monks that Indian scholars had once been highly respected in Tibet. Mr. Edgar encouraged him to read more books about Tibet, revealing that the school’s purpose was not only to teach Bhutia boys but also to send some to the Tibetan Himalayan region. At that time, the entry of Europeans into Tibet was prohibited. The British government had previously sent two Indians to Tibet for various surveys and information collection: they were Nain Singh and Kishen Singh, who went to Lhasa in 1866 and 1880, respectively. The British also sent Sarat Chandra Das to Tibet with funds and necessary assistance for the expedition. Sarat Chandra Das's interest in learning about Tibet's religion and culture was one of the main reasons for his participation in this mission.

In February 1877, Sarat Chandra, accompanied by his brother Nabin Chandra Das, Lama Ugyen, and the Sikkimese military commander's children, again traveled to Sikkim. They visited places such as Yangang, Tashiding, Songang Choling, and Pemayangtse. In his Autobiography, Sarat Chandra quotes parts of his brother Nabin Chandra’s writings about this journey. They began their journey on January 27 from Darjeeling, walking across moss-covered stones and pebbles since there were no proper roads. Their only source of drinking water was a waterfall, and they attempted to shelter from the cold by constructing a covering using bamboo for the night. They crossed the fast-flowing Rangit River over a small bamboo bridge and finally reached Namchi, where large stone Buddhist monasteries were located. Each stone was inscribed with names of gods and mantras in Tibetan. Inside the monasteries, the walls were adorned with images of the Buddha in various postures. Outside, stupas with fluttering Buddhist flags could be seen, which the locals believed would drive away evil spirits. They stayed at the monastery for the night and continued their journey the following day by horseback.

In June 1877, Sarat Chandra and Lama Ugyen Gyatso left Dubdi in Sikkim for Zongri. By late afternoon, they had reached Zongri, where they stayed in a house made of large stones with a wooden roof. The people there did not know how to use saws or nails. The breathtaking natural beauty of the area, with views of Khabur, Kang-la, and Kanchenjunga, was indescribable. Sharatchandra attempted to navigate using a sextant, but the thick fog made it impossible.

The next day, they crossed the Rathong River using a wooden bridge and traveled through vast rhododendron thickets. They soon arrived at the junction of Yumphang and Kang-la, where roads connected to Singalila, Falut, Sandakphu, and Tonglu. They continued along the Churung River and, by evening, found shelter in a cave near Tey Geyak-la Mountain. There, they met three Tibetans who informed them that the Nepali outpost guards would not stop their journey.

The following days involved steep climbs, river crossings, and treacherous mountain paths. Sarat Chandra saw an avalanche from a distance and was warned by his guide Furchung about the dangers of walking on the ice, as even a small mistake could lead to a deadly fall into a crevasse. They also passed areas where rivers suddenly swelled, washing away bridges and sweeping tourists away. After being extremely cautious, they reached a plateau known as Furpa Karpu, where they encountered human settlements. They continued their journey, passing through large stone-built shelters for travelers and locals. They eventually reached Tungra Kongma, where rhododendron and juniper trees reappeared.

They continued their journey, heading northeast. After crossing the Yalong River, they ascended the steep path to Dechan Rolpa Monastery and then to So Chunga La Mountain. The steep path reached an altitude of about 2,500 feet. They crossed four mountain ridges, including Mrigen-la, Pango-la, Seon-la, and Tama-la, which ranged from 14,800 to 15,000 feet. In the evening, they reached the village of Kamba-chan-gyun, where they visited the monastery the next day. The lamas here wore long earrings and kept their hair long. Locals mistook them for Nepali lamas, calling them Palbu Lamas. That night, the villagers treated them to a meal of rice, potatoes, mutton, and beer.

The following day, they followed the Kangchen River, crossing paths with villagers who were worshipping Kangchen Mountain by firing guns, shooting arrows, and performing athletic feats. The head lama secretly informed them that officials were approaching the border, and the villagers had been instructed not to allow any sheep or goat traders into Tibet, as there was an outbreak of livestock diseases. The Chathang-la Pass was generally closed to tourists, while the Kangla Chenam Pass remained open. At this point, Sarat Chandra began to feel uncertain about reaching Tibet.

                             (To be continued)

67. Kashmir-Kusum 3 - Rajendra Mohan Bosu

 

  The travels of Bengalis in the past 

                        Sumana Dam

             (Continued from the last part)

Western Kashmir:

When traveling by boat from Srinagar, after crossing the Safa Kadal Bridge, to the left, the river Dudh Ganga flows. A little further, on the left, the execution gallows can be seen. In the past, executions were frequently carried out here, but now the king rarely orders executions. Afterward, there is a beautiful wooden house for tourists.

Next, there is the Kheer Bhawani shrine. In the morning, the water in the kund (holy spring) was green when the author visited, but by 10 AM, it had turned pink. After that, while traveling along the river, one can see villages on both sides, Chinese woods, and the lush green grasslands that resemble carpets.

The first lake on this path is Manasbal Lake. The water here is very deep and clear. Nearby are the ruins of the Badshahabad, built by Emperor Jahangir. This lake is nourished by numerous springs located below it. White and red lotuses grow in the water, which add to the lake’s beauty. A beautiful waterfall cascades down from a high mountain in seven streams. Near the lake and waterfall is an ancient temple. The author had wished to spend the night on the grass here, but he was told that bears, wild animals known for their aggression, come to drink water here at night.

The next destination is the Wular Lake. This is the largest lake in the region, through which the river Vitasta flows. The shallow waters contain aquatic plants, lotus flowers, and many fish. When crossing Wular Lake by boat, there was a risk of the boat capsizing due to the strong winds.

Next, the author moves toward Nurukhal and then visits Lanka Island. About 400 years ago, the Muslim ruler Jalal-ud-Din constructed this island, which is around 200 feet long and about 150 feet wide. The dense forest, especially mulberry trees, is so thick that sunlight cannot penetrate it. Grape vines climb up the trees. The area is dotted with palaces and the ruins of columns. There is a Shiva lingam that may have been installed by a later Hindu king. In 1404, Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin of Kashmir had an artificial island built in the lake known as Zainal Lank.

On the opposite side of Lanka Island, on the western shore of the lake, stands Shakuruddin Hill. The path to the top is steep and must be climbed on foot. At the summit, there are the ruins of a famous fakir named Shakuruddin’s shrine, or mosque. From here, there is a beautiful view of Wular Lake and the villages on its banks.

On the southwest shore of the lake is Sopore, once the capital of Kashmir in ancient times. The place was originally called Surapur, after Sur, the minister of king Avantibarma, who rebuilt the city. Earlier, it was known as Kambura or Kampur. There are two beautiful houses for tourists to stay here. An ancient fort, a beautiful Shiva temple, and a mosque with golden spires are present. The climate here is very healthy, which is why the British used to visit this area. Fishing is a major activity here.

After that, by boat along the Vitasta River (Jhelum), the author reaches Baramulla. Here, the Pandits with long tilak on the forehead and wearing long firan (Kashmiri dress) begin their competition to serve as the author’s hosts. The Maharaja has also provided a bungalow for tourists. It was learned that an Englishman was conducting excavation work in search of hidden treasure. Legend has it that the Chinese emperors, after being defeated, hid valuable gems in the area near Baramulla. 

The author and his companions reach a place where they see a tall Shiva lingam and a broken temple. It is said that the Pandavas had set up this structure. Nearby, excavation is underway in search of treasure, at a small mound, which is covered in jungle and inhabited by wild animals. Old brickwork is being uncovered at the site. (The place near Baramulla is called Uskur. The Archaeological Survey of India discovered the remains of the Buddhist monastery Jayendra Vihara here in 1869-70. The terracotta Buddha statues in Gandhara style, found here, are now in the British Museum. The author likely observed the excavation or earlier explorations during his visit in 1869. The site, named Hushkapur after Kushan king Huvishka, is now known as Uskur. The Chinese traveler Xuanzang mentioned this monastery in his writings.)

The author mentions that Kashmir has many mineral resources, many of which remain undiscovered due to lack of excavation. While traveling along the Chandrabhaga River, the author himself found large quantities of stones mixed with gold and silver.

Baramulla gets its name from Barahmulla, which is believed to have been the site of the Boar Avatar. There are traces of the boar’s hoof on a mountain here. Also present are the sacred places of Ramkund, Sitakund, and Suryakund. The Vitasta River has become narrow after passing through Baramulla, and its flow is swift and dangerous. Boats can no longer navigate through it.

Kashmir's uplands, or Margs, are rich with a variety of flowers, offering a breathtaking view that mesmerizes tourists. Gulmarg is the most beautiful of these. One must travel both by water and land from Srinagar to reach it. Flowers bloom from one end of the marg to the other, and for miles, all one can see is flowers. There are no accommodations for tourists here, so travelers set up their own camps. Many Gujjars (herders) and Choppans (shepherds) live in the area, so milk, curd, ghee, and meat are always available. However, other goods must be brought from far away.

Khilanmarg is another scenic morg. Though larger in size, it is not as beautiful in terms of flowers as Gulmarg.

Lolab is a very fertile region. It is 15 miles long and at places only a few miles wide, stretching up to three miles at other places. Surrounded by high mountains, a large river (Loulab River) flows through it. The land is very fertile, with many orchards of mulberries, walnuts, and chinars. The region is made up of around thirty villages. The climate is cool and healthy, making it a favorite hunting ground. Bears come in large groups when the fruit ripens, so the area is sometimes called the "Bear Forest."

In the northeastern part of Kashmir, beyond the Lolab region, there is an extraordinary area called Lar. The Sindh River (not the Indus River) flows through this valley. The route to Dras, Ladakh, and Yarkand passes through this region. The valley is breathtaking, with towering snow-capped mountains, forests of cedar and birch, delicious fruit orchards, and grasslands that resemble carpets. Grapes, peaches, walnuts, pears, and apples grow abundantly. Small villages dot both sides of the river, surrounded by fields of crops. This place is ideal for hunting. The climate is excellent, so Kashmiri nobles and tourists spend some time here during the months of Shravana and Bhadra. At the northwest end of this valley, there are several beautiful but dilapidated temples. There is a sacred spring or well called the Nagbal, and another sacred mountain lake called Gangabal. It is located at an altitude of 16,900 feet on the Harmukh mountain. This lake is the source of the Vitasta River and is a holy site for Hindus. For Kashmiri Pandits, Gangabal is as sacred as the Ganges. Every year, thousands of pilgrims gather here during the month of Bhadra.

At the northeastern end of the Sindh Valley, near Srinagar and 5 days' journey away, is Sonamarg (Golden Meadow), which is equally or more popular with tourists than Gulmarg. The Maharaja has built several houses here for the convenience of visitors.

Thus, the author’s journey through Kashmir concludes.

66. Kashmir-Kusum 2 - Rajendra Mohan Bosu

  

    The travels of Bengalis in the past 

                        Sumana Dam

             (Continued from the last part)

The name of this region is Kashmir, as it was once the ashram of Kashyapa Muni, and the present capital of Kashmir is Srinagar. The Vitasta (Jhelum) river flows through the city, with seven wooden bridges connecting both sides of the city. These bridges are called Kadals here. People in this area always travel by boat on the river. All the houses here are made of wood, except for the beautiful mansions of the Maharaja and a few wealthy individuals. The royal palace, Sher Gari, is located on the banks of the Vitasta River. When the author visited in 1869, there had been a flood during the monsoon, which destroyed all the wooden houses along the riverbank.

Near Srinagar is a lake called Dal Lake, which is public, as "Dal" means general. When the water level in the lake rises, there is a possibility of flooding in Srinagar, so there is a dam between the river and the lake.

When you travel from one side of Srinagar to the other by boat along the river, you can see everything. At the entrance to the city, the Maharaja constructed several bungalows, which were primarily used by English tourists as resthouses.

The royal palace appears to be quite ordinary, but the stone-built palace located on the riverbank is very picturesque. On the riverbank near the palace is the beautiful golden-topped temple of Gadadhar Dev. The city has several canals that connect to the river, and these canals also have Kadals (wooden bridges). On the opposite side of the royal palace is Basant Bagh, where there is a high seat made of black stone. Every year, on the first day of the bright fortnight of Kartika month, Gadadhar Dev is brought here for the Govardhan Puja and Annakoot festival. During this festival, the Maharaja distributes food to the entire population. Separate areas are designated for Hindu and Muslim food preparations. Nearby is the tomb of Sufi saint Shah Hamdan, which is one of the oldest and finest mosques in Kashmir. It is said that a Kali temple once stood here before the mosque was built. On the opposite side of the river is a mosque called the New Mosque or Patthar Mosque, which was established by Begum Nur Jahan. Later, on the right bank of the river, there is the tomb of King Jalaluddin, a 15th-century ruler of Kashmir who contributed greatly to the arts and literature of Kashmir. It is said that he brought skills like carpet weaving, pen-box crafting, and glass-making from Turkestan to Kashmir. The bridge near his tomb is known by his name.

The hill of Shankaracharya, known as Takht-i-Suleiman (Solomon’s Throne) by Muslims, has two paths leading to the top, but the final part of the journey is so treacherous that one has to crawl carefully. On top, there is a Shiva temple and several other temples. The stones used to build these temples are not from the hill itself, and it is hard to imagine how such large stones were brought here in ancient times. Hari Parvat is another small hill near Srinagar. In 1590, Emperor Akbar began constructing a fort here, but the fort was never completed. Inside, there are small temples and cannons, but nothing else. The views of Srinagar from the top of these hills are very beautiful.

Sher Gari, in front of the royal palace, connects Dal Lake with the Vitasta River via a canal called Chutkol. At the beginning of this canal, the Maharaja's pet ducks swim and various royal boats are anchored here. A little more than half a mile away is Drogzan, the gateway to the lake. When the water level in the river is low, the gates open, and when the water level is high, the gates automatically close, preventing floodwater from entering the lake. In this lake, lilies, lotuses, and other water plants bloom. Some people here even eat their meals on lotus leaves instead of plates. Some parts of the lake have floating farms and huts, which the Kashmiris create. The shallow areas of the lake are used to grow aquatic plants and vegetation. The land is made firm by piling up plants and soil, and agriculture is practiced on it. To prevent the land from floating away, long and thick wooden posts are placed in the ground at regular intervals.

On the western side of the lake, there is a large mosque in the village of Hazratbal, said to house a hair of the Prophet Muhammad. Four fairs are held here annually, and people from both Hindu and Muslim communities gather for them. During these fairs, boat races are organized in Dal Lake.

Dal Lake has a small island called Char Chinar Island, which has four chinar trees. There are several beautiful gardens in Srinagar, including Nasim Bagh, Shalimar Bagh, Nishat Bagh, and Chashme Shahi. These gardens have artificial waterfalls, fountains, and terraced gardens. These features are not found in flat lands like Bengal. Near Nishat Bagh in Dal Lake, there is a small island named Sonalang, meaning Golden Island. Old ruins of brick-and-stone buildings are visible here.

On the low hills by the lake is the ruins of a palace called Parimahal, built by Emperor Jahangir. From here, the view of the lake is stunning.

The author now discusses some strange natural phenomena he could not explain, such as the changing colors of the water in the Kunda (pond) of Kheer Bhawani Devi Temple. The water changes to colors like blue and yellow, and when it turns red, it is believed to be an ominous sign, indicating the goddess is angry.

On the right side of Srinagar, in the Densu area, there is a village called Banhama (in Budgam district). There is a 20-foot-wide channel here that remains dry throughout the year. However, on the eighth day of the bright fortnight of Bhadra month, water starts to flow from various high lands and fills the channel, which is then considered sacred for a ritual bath, known as Jat Ganga. The high land is regarded as the "Jata" (hair) of Lord Mahadeva.

Machihama has a large lake called Haker Sar (also known as Hokarsar, a bird sanctuary). The lake has large floating landmasses that move with the wind. These floating lands are used by people for grazing livestock.

In Devsar (in Kulgam district), there is a spring or pond called Basuki Nag. The water remains in the pond from the arrival of spring until the crops are harvested. After that, the water dries up, flowing away to fill another pond called Golabgarh on the other side of the Pir Panjal mountains. The two ponds are separated by a distance of ten crores, and it is unclear how they are connected.

The author then discusses places in the eastern part of Kashmir: Pandriton (Pandrethan Temple), which was once the capital of Kashmir. Emperor Ashoka built a Buddhist temple here that housed the tooth relic of Lord Buddha. Today, only the ruins of the temple remain.

Pampore is the birthplace of saffron. It was once called Padmapur, founded by a king named Padma. The blooming saffron flowers in Kartik month create a magnificent sight.

A mile and a half away from Pampore, there are ponds with water mixed with iron and sulfur at Fuknag and Kalishnag, which are said to be beneficial for health.

Avantipur was once the capital of Kashmir, founded by King Avantivarma. Now, only the ruins of some temples remain.

Nearby, on a hill, is an ancient temple called Samathang. It is believed that during the great flood of Kashmir, Sage Kashyapa meditated here for thousands of years.

Bijbehara may be a corruption of the name Vidyavihar. Emperor Ashoka built a Buddhist temple here, which was later destroyed by Sultan Sikandar, who replaced it with a mosque. Raja Gulab Singh later demolished the mosque and rebuilt the temple (Vijayeshwar Temple).

Anantnag, known as Islamabad during Muslim rule and still by that name in the English period, was earlier known as Anantnag during Hindu rule. The Anantnag pond is large and teeming with fish.

Five miles from Anantnag, in the area of Matan (also known as Martand), there is a sacred Hindu pilgrimage site with the ruins of a sun temple.

Bhumju Cave, near Matan, is another sacred Hindu site, which has several small caves and two long caves. One of the large caves has a temple.

Achabal is a natural spring located in a garden built by Emperor Jahangir for his beloved wife Nur Jahan. The word "Bal" means spring. Here, there are fountains, waterfalls, ponds, and the ruins of an ancient palace.

Kukurnag (also called Kokarnag) is a gathering of several small springs.

Bairanag (Berinag) is a natural spring and pond, with ruins of ancient walls, paths, and palaces built by Emperor Jahangir. Some of Shah Jahan's works can also be found here.

Koshanag (Kausar Nag) is a beautiful mountain lake with several waterfalls, the most notable being the Aharbal waterfall.

The greatest Hindu pilgrimage in Kashmir is Amarnath. Every year, on the full moon day of Bhadra month, thousands of pilgrims gather to visit Amarnath. Some fearless ascetics stay there for two to three months. Before the full moon, the king of Kashmir hoists flags in the Rambag garden near Srinagar to call together the pilgrims. The journey is so dangerous that many pilgrims die every year from the harsh terrain and snowstorms. On the way, there is a spring called Panchatarni with five branches, where pilgrims bathe before proceeding to the cave to worship Lord Shiva. It is said that the ice Shiva Lingam in the cave changes form every month, shrinking after the full moon and completely disappearing by the new moon, only to grow back with the next full moon.

The exact location of the fall of Sati's throat is not known, but the whole of Kashmir is considered to be the Sarada Peeth. A statue of Goddess Sarada can be found in Sopore. Kashmiri script is also called the Sarada script. (The present location called Sopur, in Baramulla district, has a Sarada Temple. Also, near the Neelum River in Azad Kashmir, there are ruins of the ancient Sarada Peeth temple. In both of these places, Sarada refers to the goddess Saraswati. This Sarada temple should be called Sarada Peeth rather than Shakti Peeth. Similarly, there are Sarada Peeths established by Shankaracharya, such as the Dwarka Sarada Peeth and the Sringeri Sarada Peeth).

                           (To be continued)

65. Kashmir-Kusum 1 Rajendra Mohan Bosu

 

    The travels of Bengalis in the past 

                        Sumana Dam

The book Kashmir Kusum is written by Rajendramohan Bosu. It was published in 1875 (Jaistha, 1282 Bengali Year). (It seems there are some printing errors regarding the year of publication because the travel period cannot be after the publication date). There is little information available about Rajendramohan Bosu. However, in the dedication, he mentions that he presented the book to Nilambar Mukhopadhyay, the then Chief Justice and Judicial Commissioner of Kashmir, and stated that he was his beloved. From the text, it is known that Rajendramohan Bosu lived in Kashmir for an extended period starting from 1879 due to his job. Some parts of Kashmir Kusum were earlier published in a journal under the title Description of Kashmir. The full title of the book is Kashmir Kusum, or Description of Kashmir. It can be categorized more as a Kashmir Tourist Guide rather than a travelogue. However, since the author mentions in the preface that he has personally visited or resided at these locations in Kashmir, it can be considered as a travelogue. He also mentions using information from Dr. Ince's Kashmir Handbook and the Persian work Gulzar-e-Kashmir by Kashmir's Dewan Kriparam.

The main feature of the book is that the description of Kashmir provided here pertains to undivided India, without mentioning the issue of Pakistan-occupied Kashmir or Azad Kashmir, as Pakistan had not yet come into existence at the time, which was more than 70 years away. Therefore, Kashmir is described as undivided. At that time, Kashmir was under the rule of the independent King of Kashmir. During this period, Ranbir Singh (reigned 1856–1885) was the king of Kashmir, and his father was Maharaja Gulab Singh (reigned 1846–1856), whose name is mentioned several times in the book.

The book primarily discusses the travel routes and destinations in present-day Kashmir. The western border of Kashmir during that time was Hazara and Rawalpindi, with a length of 350 miles from east to west. To the north, it extended to Baltistan or Skardu, all the way up to the Karakoram range.

According to the author, there are five main routes to travel to Kashmir:

1. Jammu and Banhal Route: This is the modern route used by the Kashmir King (currently the popular Jammu-Banihal Pass route).
2. Bhimber and Pir Panjal Route (Old Badshahi Route): Bhimber is now in Pakistan-occupied Azad Kashmir.
3. Bhimber and Poonch Route.
4. Muri Route.
5. Abbottabad Route: This was used by the former Afghan rulers.

Among these routes, only the first one, i.e., the Jammu-Banhal route, required the permission of the king to enter Kashmir. Travelers were required to carry a permit from either the King of Kashmir or the British Government for ease of access to transport, food, etc. However, when leaving Kashmir, no one could exit without a signed order from the king. All the routes had rest houses (called adda) where travelers could easily get rooms, horses, mules, palanquins, and food. The king’s officials took care of the travelers to ensure they faced no discomfort.

The Jammu and Banhal Route: The distance from Lahore to Srinagar is 270 miles via this route. It takes 11 days from Jammu to Srinagar. The route goes through Danchal, Kirimchi, Mir, Landar, Bilawat, Ramban, Ramsu, Banhal, Bairnagar, and Anantnag to reach Srinagar. To reach Ramban, one must cross the Chandrabhaga River, which is very difficult and dangerous. The road is treacherous and often not properly paved. From Anantnag, travelers take boats to reach Srinagar, as it takes two more days to reach Srinagar by land from there. The king of Kashmir used this route for travel.

The Bhimber and Pir Panjal Route: The distance from Lahore to Srinagar is 246 miles via this route. It takes 12 days from Bhimber to Srinagar. The route goes through Syedabad, Nowshera, Chingas, Rajouri, Thannamandi, Baramgola, Poshiyana, Aliyabad Sarai, Hirpur, Shopiyan, Ramu, and then to Srinagar. This route crosses the Chitrpani River twenty-five times. Many beautiful waterfalls are located along this route. (Most of these areas are now part of Azad Kashmir.)

The Bhimber and Poonch Route: From Bhimber to Srinagar is a 14-day journey. The route passes through Thannamandi, Surn, Poonch, Kehuta, Aliyabad, Hyderabad, Uri, Nowshera, and Baramulla to reach Srinagar (most of these areas are now part of Azad Kashmir). From Baramulla, everyone travels by boat to Srinagar, or it takes two days to go by land.

The Muri Route: This route is very difficult to travel from Lahore, but it is easier from Rawalpindi. The route goes through Muri, Deol, Kohala, Danna, Mair, Chikkar, Hatti, Chokoti, Uri, Nowshera, and Baramulla to Srinagar, a distance of 137 miles (again, most of these areas are now in Azad Kashmir).

The Abbottabad Route: This route is 155 miles. It goes through Abbottabad, Manshera, Ghrie, Muzaffarabad, Hatiyan, Konda, Kathai, Shahadra, Gingal, Baramulla to Srinagar (most of these areas are now in Azad Kashmir).

The author advises that for residents of Kolkata, the Banhal, Pir Panjal, or Poonch routes should be preferred. The other two routes are very difficult, so the Pir Panjal route is the better option. Although the Banhal route requires the king’s special permission, there are no restrictions for Bengalis.

{Currently, all routes except the Banihal route are closed for India, as they pass through areas in Pakistan-occupied Kashmir or Azad Kashmir. There are also two other routes from Shimla through mountain ranges and hilltops, but they require special permission from the Punjab government. (Currently, one can enter Kashmir from Shimla via Ladakh, but that requires crossing several high mountain passes).}

In every resting place along the route, one can find accommodation, bedding, and food such as rice, flour, milk, ghee, and meat. However, to fully enjoy traveling in the Kashmir Valley, it is necessary to bring tents, camp beds, spices, dal, potatoes, warm clothing, and waterproof gear. Although carrying fewer items might be more convenient for travel, it is important to carry currency, as the hill people do not accept paper money. The Maharaja has built several bungalows for tourists in Srinagar, but they are always full due to the English. Houses are available for rent in the city, but they are very filthy, so staying in a houseboat is better. There is also land available for setting up tents.

The prices for animals and bearers from one resting place to the next are as follows: Horse – 8 annas, Mule – 8 annas, Palanquin – 4 annas, Palanquin bearer – 9 annas, Mule bearer – 4 annas, Piththu – 12 annas (1 anna = 6.25 paisa). Horses and bearers do not travel more than one adda. After receiving their wage, they return to their original place. Therefore, a new horse or bearer must be hired at each adda.

The author cautions that those who have not traveled in mountainous regions will not understand the difficulty of these routes. If Kashmir is heaven, the paths to it are as difficult as the steps of heaven. Some paths are so steep that one has to use ropes to climb up or descend. During these climbs, both the rider and the spectator’s hearts race. In some places, the actual path is only a couple of feet wide, and it is so high that looking down makes one dizzy. In winter, these paths become completely covered in snow and are impassable. However, the beauty of these treacherous paths is immense. The difficult terrain is filled with flowers and fruits, and there is no fear of robbery or theft, as Maharaja Gulab Singh ruled with an iron fist. However, it is not completely safe to travel by rope or horse due to the treacherous conditions. Horses and camels can only travel the Banhal route; in the other routes, elephants were used by Mughal emperors and were described by Bernier, but these journeys were also fraught with danger. Some people even use the Piththu or carry goods on the back, sitting on a small seat tied to the bearer’s back.

The locals of Kashmir are accustomed to these difficult routes and travel easily. Even on the first route, the Maharaja's messenger can travel from Jammu to Srinagar on foot in 18 hours, at lightning speed.

The author warns tourists to remember that they are entering the kingdom of an independent king. They should show proper respect when meeting the Maharaja, his family, and high-ranking officials, and follow all local rules and regulations. Tourists should not secretly take any goods across the border without the Maharaja’s permission and should not take any Kashmiris out of Kashmir without the Maharaja’s consent.

                           (To be continued)

64. Palamou - Sanjib Chandra Chattopadhyay

 

 The travels of Bengalis in the past 

                        Sumana Dam

The first edition of Sanjib Chandra Chattopadhyay's Palamou was published in the Bangio Sahitya Parishad in the month of Baishakh, 1351 , which corresponds to the year 1944 in the Gregorian calendar. Prior to this, essays on Palamou were published under the editorial work of Sanjib Chandra Chattopadhyay in the Bangadarshan magazine in the years 1881 and 1882 (in the 7th, 8th, and 9th years of its publication, with two, three, and one essays respectively).

In the book Palamou, the author never explicitly mentions the time of his journey. However, he repeatedly states that this journey was made long ago. His brother, the great novelist Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, published a book called Sanjivani Sudha in 1898 in memory of Sanjib Chandra Chattopadhyay. In it, Bankim Chandra wrote a short biography of his brother, revealing that Sanjib Chandra's full name was Sanjiban Chandra Chattopadhyay. He was born in Baishakh, 1756 in the Shak calendar (1834 CE) and passed away in Baishakh, 1811 Shakabda (1889 CE). Bankim Chandra mentions that in the early part of his career, Sanjib Chandra had visited Palamou. However, Bankim does not specify any exact dates in his biography. He also mentions that after Sanjib Chandra wrote Bengal Raiyats in 1864, the Lieutenant Governor was so pleased with it that he rewarded him with the position of Deputy Magistrate, and Sanjib was appointed to Krishnanagar. After two years there, the government sent him to Palamou on a serious assignment. This helps establish that Sanjib Chandra traveled to Palamou in the late 1860s.

Sanjib Chandra Chattopadhyay, a novelist, essayist, and one of the editors of Bangadarshan, wrote several other works, including novels like Kantha Mala and Madhabilata, and a historical work Jal Pratapchand. Despite his brilliance, he was very disorganized in his personal life. Although he was exceptionally talented, he could not complete his formal education. Even though he reached the position of Deputy Magistrate, he was unable to retain the job. His writing, although skilled, was often chaotic, as seen in Palamou, which reflects his natural tendency for disorder. This discussion focuses only on the travel-related parts of the book, excluding irrelevant content.

At the time of planning his trip to Palamou, he did not know the exact location or distance. After consulting a map, he planned his route. Very few people had traveled to Palamou at that time. He hired a mail cart from the England Transit Company at Raniganj and set off at midnight for Hazaribagh. The next morning, the cart stopped at the eastern bank of the Barakar River. The small river was crossed on foot by everyone, with carts being pushed across. Here, he first saw wild indigenous men and women, along with children, who called him “Sahib” and began asking him for money, likely because they assumed that anyone traveling by cart was a Sahib. From Barakar, he first saw small mountains, and as someone who had never seen mountains before, he was extremely pleased. In the afternoon, as the cart passed near a mountain, he got off and tried to walk closer to it, but after a long walk, he returned, realizing that it was very difficult for a Bengali to estimate the distance to a mountain.

The next day, he reached Hazaribagh, where he rested and ate at the home of a respectable person. At around 1:30 AM, he began his journey to Chotanagpur by palanquin, and after a few days, he reached Palamou. From Ranchi to Palamou, he thought the mountains in the distance looked like clouds. Gradually, the mountains and then the forests became clearer.

In those forests, he saw a group of Kol boys with bells around their necks, herding buffaloes. They resembled Lord Krishna, wearing a necklace of seven beads, and their appearance was small and dark. The boys and girls were playing and dancing. He found them neither beautiful nor ugly, but rather, in the embrace of nature, they seemed particularly beautiful. Here he wrote the famous saying, “Wild creatures are beautiful in the forest; children are beautiful in their mother’s lap.”

Later, when he reached Palamou, he saw that the dense forests contained rivers and villages. The mountains appeared one after another like the endless waves of the sea, creating lasting echoes. The Kol people mainly lived in villages with 30 to 32 huts made of leaves.

Kol women wore a small piece of cloth around their waist and were bare-chested. They adorned themselves with bead necklaces, and their ears had small flowers, with larger flowers on their heads. When the women and children saw his palanquin, they gathered around. Elderly women were rare among the Kol, as they remained youthful due to their extremely hard work. The men, however, appeared to have less vitality. Kol men and women drank alcohol, but none of them became intoxicated.

Every evening, the author felt an irresistible attraction to visit the Latehar mountain to enjoy nature’s beauty. He named one mountain Kumari and would sit in its shadow, gazing at the small world within the surrounding mountains. Smoke rose from the villages, and the sound of a drum might have drifted in the air. His white tent seemed to stand alone in the forest like a dove. This was the author’s world.

One day, he saw a young man, with great courage, ignoring the objections of several women, going to hunt a tiger that had killed his cow. The author took his gun and accompanied the young man. Together, they found the tiger sleeping in a cave. The young man rolled a large stone onto the tiger, killing it and fulfilling his vow.

One night, under the moonlight, he was invited to watch the Kol people's dance. He felt that their songs seemed to touch the base of the mountains, and in rhythm with the dance, it felt as though the moon itself was dancing in the sky.

He also observed Kol weddings. In these marriages, the bride was taken without any rituals or mantras. The Kol people’s greatest celebration was the wedding, during which they spent 10 to 15 rupees—a significant amount for them. To gather this money, they often fell into the trap of borrowing from moneylenders, which burdened them for life.

The main resource of Palamou was the Mahua flower. The flowers (called Moua by the author) fell to the ground in such abundance that the area was covered with them, and the air buzzed with the sound of thousands of bees and flies. The Kol people used these flowers as food, and dried, they could last for months. During the rainy season, the poor Kol people survived by eating only these flowers for 2 to 3 months. The flowers were also used to make alcohol.

Thus, the travel narrative concludes, leaving the rest unknown to the reader.

63. Three years in Europe 9 Romesh Chunder Dutt

 

   The travels of Bengalis in the past 

                        Sumana Dam

          (Continued from the last part)

In this part, the relevant country is Germany.

From November 2, 1886, to December 15, 1886, during his nearly 45-day journey across various European countries, Romesh Chunder Dutt visited six countries and thirty cities. Following this, the author made some observations for future European travelers.

• In every reputable hotel in Europe, English, French, and German are spoken. Therefore, knowing any of these languages makes it easy for tourists to communicate without any difficulty.

• The Baedeker series of guidebooks are excellent. If one reads them beforehand, there's no need to spend money on a guide.

• During this 44-day journey, he spent a little more than 66 pounds, averaging 1.5 pounds per day.

• Due to the need to cover more places in a short time, his expenses were higher. If one stays longer in one place, the hotel charges are usually lower. Generally, Europeans travel by staying in one place for one to one and a half months.

• His hotel expenses amounted to thirty pounds, while rail fare cost twenty pounds. He spent fifteen pounds on car rentals, museum and gallery entrance fees, buying souvenirs, and taking photos.

• Different countries have different currencies, which can be inconvenient for travelers. If all countries were to adopt the same currency, it would benefit tourists. This far-sighted idea of Ramesh Chandra Dutt remained unused for many years. Later, in 1999, the euro became the common currency in most countries the author had visited, except England.

After this, the author traveled Europe once more, with a focus on Germany. He added this journey's narrative in the third edition of his book.

On August 12, 1893, Romesh Chunder Dutt visited Cologne, Germany, again after twenty-two years. By this time, many changes had occurred in Europe. The Cologne Cathedral, which had started in the 13th century, was completed in 1880 under the reign of Kaiser Wilhelm I of the newly unified German Empire. Describing the grandeur of this massive and royal cathedral in words is difficult.

From Cologne, he went to Wiesbaden, famous for its therapeutic baths. The author had come to Europe for a change of air due to ill health, but even there, he fell sick with malaria for about a month in England. He also suffered from sciatica. Thus, Wiesbaden proved beneficial for his health. After bathing in the warm springs and drinking the water every morning, he, like many others, regained his health within a month. He also began learning German.

Occasionally, he took delightful trips around the surrounding forests and the Rhine River. He particularly enjoyed reading a book alone in the shade of trees during a summer afternoon. In many European cities, natural forests are preserved close to the city. He hiked up and down the forest paths and visited nearby places like Sonnenberg, Neroberg, and Eisenhand. He also took a steamer along the Rhine to visit Germany’s National Monument. This monument features a 33-foot statue of Germania, with oak leaves on her head, a German royal crown in her right hand, and an open sword in her left. The statue sits on a 38-foot pedestal, located 740 feet above the ground. Germania is the personification of the entire German nation.

The author visited several German cities along the Rhine River and along the river route. Frankfurt, now in Prussia, is popular with tourists as the birthplace of the famous author Goethe. The city’s attractions include Goethe’s house, a statue, the old town hall, the cathedral, and the dilapidated Jewish quarter.

Another city along the Rhine is Mainz, where Gutenberg, the inventor of the printing press, was born, and a statue stands in his memory. On another day, he visited Worms, the birthplace of Martin Luther King, and saw his memorial and statue. Further along the Rhine, the river Neckar merges into the Rhine. The university city of Heidelberg lies along the Neckar. Its university is the oldest in Germany. The ancient and crumbling Heidelberg Castle, built in the 14th century, bears witness to many historical events. Continuing along the Rhine, the author visited Speyer, Strasbourg, Alsace, Metz, Lorraine, and other cities, each carrying its own history of wars and conflicts.

The travel narrative concludes with this excursion of the Rhineland—an account of Romesh Chunder Dutt’s three-year stay in Europe from 1868 to 1871 and his subsequent travels in 1886 and 1893. The book is so information-rich that in the future, when the travel stories of other writers on these countries are described on this blog, new information will simply be added based on it as the foundation. Due to Romesh Chunder Dutt’s extensive knowledge of European history and places, his writings remain relevant in many aspects to this day.

62. Three years in Europe 8 Romesh Chunder Dutt

 

    The travels of Bengalis in the past 

                        Sumana Dam

          (Continued from the last part

In this part, the relevant countries are Rome and Vatican City.

The next landmark after Romesh Chunder Dutt is Vatican City. In 1929, Vatican City became recognized as a separate country after breaking away from Rome. When the author visited there in 1886, it was still part of Rome, which is why he recorded it as Rome. Currently, the most notable medieval Roman architecture in Vatican City is St. Peter's Church. With its grandeur and beauty, this church is unparalleled in the world. The entrance is flanked by two crescent-shaped colonnades, with 284 columns. On top of them, there are 192 statues of saints. The church features towering marble columns, a gold-inlaid ceiling, marble floors, bronze pillars, and a vast dome. The overall height of the church, combined with its splendor, creates an atmosphere of unimaginable luxury and grandeur. The precision of the architectural measurements is so exact that it is truly astonishing. The tombs and statues of Popes are located here. Some exceptional sculptures by Michelangelo are also present. The highest point of the church is 607 feet tall. There is also a 77-foot tall obelisk outside, which is very ancient, brought from Egypt to Rome by Emperor Caligula.

Near St. Peter’s Church is the Pope’s Palace, which was a separate empire before 1871, and during the author's visit, it was annexed to Italy. This palace houses many priceless paintings, the most notable being Michelangelo's The Last Judgment, painted on the walls of the Sistine Chapel. Beside the palace is the Vatican Museum, home to many ancient sculptures, including Michelangelo’s Apollo Belvedere.

The author next traveled to Velletri, 26 miles from Rome, an ancient Volsci tribe city, where there are ruins of an ancient fortress. After that, traveling through the ancient city of Segni and Ceprano, the author arrived in Naples. Naples is less clean than other Italian cities and has beggars on the streets. The author visited the Royal Palace, the Church of Saint Francesco di Paolo, and the Aquarium, where an electric fish shocked him when he touched it.

The author’s long-cherished dream of seeing Mount Vesuvius came true. For 28 francs, a company took them to the crater. The horse-drawn carriage left the city and climbed winding mountain roads. Everywhere on the slopes of Vesuvius, layers of lava from thousands of years ago have formed various patterns. From the top of the mountain, the view of Naples is very beautiful. After a stop at a hotel for lunch, they continued, but the mountain’s steep slope could not be climbed by horse, so a cable car system was in place. Instead of steam or electricity, the rail cars were drawn up using ropes and pulleys. They almost reached the summit in this way, and the temperature had decreased significantly with the altitude. After that, the remaining distance had to be covered on foot. Standing on the edge of the crater, the author saw sulfurous white smoke rising rapidly from below. From the active Vesuvius, rocks were being ejected along with the smoke. He also saw new lava flowing from the crater. A piece of paper dropped into the crater was blown back up with such force, like a bullet, due to the pressure of the smoke.

Among all the places the author visited, the one he most wanted to see was Pompeii, buried under lava for eighteen centuries, which had been excavated. The ruins of this city offer a glimpse into the daily life of its people. Like other ancient Roman cities, Pompeii has a forum, with temples dedicated to Neptune, Jupiter, Venus, Isis, Augustus, and Mercury. There are also courts, prisons, theaters, amphitheaters, baths, shops, bakeries, and other buildings. The author saw the Herculaneum Gate, the Palace of the Vestal Virgins, and the House of the Ceasars. However, the homes of ordinary people were very small and had no windows, so there was little ventilation or light. The roads were paved with stone but were not very wide. There was no drainage system, and the sizes of the rooms were surprisingly small compared to today’s standards. Ordinary household items like lamps, utensils, etc., were few and are now mostly preserved in the Naples Museum. The walls of many ordinary homes also depicted crude and obscene images, showing that the sense of modesty and sin of the time was different from today’s standards.

At the foot of Mount Vesuvius lies Herculaneum, another city destroyed by the volcanic eruption of 79 AD. Unlike Pompeii, it was not covered by a thick layer of ash but by deep layers of lava. New towns like Portici, Resina, and Torre del Greco have been built on top of this lava. So, unlike Pompeii, it is not possible to excavate the ancient civilization by digging here. Only a small part of the vast theater of Herculaneum has been excavated. This theater could seat around 10,000 people. Some common homes have also been uncovered, which are similar in structure to those of Pompeii.

The Naples Museum houses many artifacts found in Pompeii and Herculaneum. There are numerous small and large bronze statues, mostly of gods and goddesses, including the famous three statues of a fawn-child, one sleeping, one dancing, and one intoxicated. There are also household items like lamps, weights, cotton spindles, farming tools, weaving instruments, weapons, surgical instruments, musical instruments, and more. Items for the wealthy, including gold and silver vessels and jewelry, have also been found. The food grains, vegetables, eggs, and fruits preserved from that era show that people, unaware of their imminent doom, had stored these food items for the future.

After visiting Pompeii, the author went to Pisa, famous for its leaning tower, although the city also has a rich history. The tower stands at one end of the cathedral’s bell tower and is 180 feet tall with an eight-story structure. It leans so much that it looks as if it might fall. The cathedral itself was built in the 11th century. It is said that Galileo discovered his theory of the pendulum after watching the swinging bronze lamp here.

From Pisa, after traveling through the Apennine mountains and the plains of Piedmont, the author arrived in Turin, the capital of Piedmont. Known for its natural beauty, historical significance, and modern development, the city is comparable to Paris, Berlin, and Vienna in terms of modernity. Turin is laid out in wide, beautiful streets stretching from north to south. The city’s large roads, squares, and railway stations are lit by electric lights, which were not common in European cities at the time (although Paris had electric street lighting in 1878). The Palazzo Madama, or Lady’s Palace, is a notable attraction. 

The author left Turin on December 13, 1886 and traveled through Rivoli, crossing the Mount Sene Tunnel through the Alps, arriving in Modena. This is a border town where their belongings were checked. The next day, they reached Paris.

                       (To be continued)